Nurturing the Motivation to Learn

According to Raffini (1993), most young children are full of curiosity and have a strong desire to explore the environment. "Rarely does one hear parents complain that their pre-schooler is unmotivated" (Raffini, 1993, para.1).

Unfortunately, as children age, some of that enthusiasm for learning can be lost. According to the Clearinghouse on Educational Management (2010), learning may become more of a drudgery than a delight. "A large number of students leave school before graduating and many more are physically present in the classroom, but they are mentally absent; they fail to invest themselves fully in the process of learning" (Clearinghouse on Educational Management, 2010, para. 2).

Although there is no magic formula for motivating students to acheive, there are strategies that may nurture the motivation to learn. For ideas, click here

Definitions

Motivation means different things to different people. Here are a few definitions that appealed to me:

Motivation is:

1) The desire to achieve a goal combined with the energy to work towards that goal (University of South Australia, 2010).

2) An internal state that rouses us to action, pushes us in particular directions, and keeps us engaged in certain activities (Ormrod, 2008).

3) The fuel that drives a person to fulfill goals, wants, and needs (Personal Improvement, 2010).

Motivation to Learn is:

A tendency to find learning activities meaningful and worthwhile and therefore attempt to get the maximum benefit from them (Brophy, 2004).

For a great article on What is Motivation and How to Stengthen it, click here

Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation

The many factors that affect student motivation can be placed in two broad categories:

Extrinsic or Intrinsic

Extrinsic motivating factors - the source of the motivation is outside of the individual and the task being performed (Ormrod, 2008). For example, a person may obey the speed limit to avoid receiving a speeding ticket.

Intrinsic motivating factors - the source of the motivation lies within the individual, and the person finds the task enjoyable or worthwhile in and of itself (Ormrod, 2008). For example, a student might work on a math problem just for fun.

To view a chart on 4 types of motivation, click here

Importance of Motivation in the Learning Process

Motivation plays a crucial role in learning by promoting student engagement in academic activities and influencing how much learning takes place during these activities (Psychology Campus, 2008).

Students who are motivated to learn something use higher cognitive processes in learning (Psychology Campus, 2008). Motivation can result in behavior changes that result in positive outcomes. These positive outcomes in turn give the individual improved morale and self-confidence. This enhanced self-efficacy can lead to the attainment of even higher goals. According to McRye (1995), this motivation cycle leads to a more efficient, productive society because self-motivated students become self-motivated employees. The workforce is enhanced with more productive members which in turn benefits society as a whole (McRye, 1995).

Click here for tips on Motivating the Unmotivated Student.

Usage and Application of Motivation

Harris (1991) provides several ideas for infusing the classroom with motivation. A few suggestions are listed below, but for the full article, click here:


1. Explain.
Research shows that many students do poorly on assignments because they do not understand what to do or why they should do it. When teachers spend more time explaining exactly what is expected on assignments or activities, students perform better (Harris, 1991).

2. Reward.
Students who are still developing intrinsic motivation to learn can be helped by extrinsic motivators in the form of rewards. Rather than criticizing unwanted behavior or answers, rewarding good work can produce good feelings and encourage good behavior (Harris, 1991).

3. Care.
Students respond with interest and motivation to teachers who appear to be human and caring. Teachers can help produce these feelings by sharing parts of themselves with students (Harris, 1991).

4. Have students participate.
One major key to motivation is the active involvement of students in their own learning. Spending long periods lecturing to students is a relatively poor method of teaching. It is better to get students involved in the lesson (Harris, 1991).

5. Teach Inductively.
Presenting conclusions first and then providing examples robs students of the joy of discovery, while giving examples first and then asking students to make sense of them allows students to draw conclusions themselves. By beginning with the examples, evidence, and stories, and then arriving at conclusions later, the instructor can maintain interest and increase motivation, as well as teach the skills of analysis and synthesis (Harris, 1991).

6. Make learning visual.
Memory is often connected to visual images. Better learning may occur when teachers attach images to the ideas they want to convey. Using drawings, diagrams, pictures, charts, graphs, bulleted lists, and three-dimensional objects can help students anchor the idea to an image (Harris, 1991).

7. Remember that energy sells.
Being energetic while teaching is a motivating factor in itself. When instructors add energy to the ideas they want to convey, learning will be enhanced (Harris, 1991).


Another great article:
How to Create Student Motivation in the Classroom.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Motivation

Advantages of Extrinsic motivation - Extrinsic motivators more readily produce behavior changes and typically involve little effort or preparation (Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching, 2010).

Disadvantages of Extrinsic motivation- Extrinsic motivators can often distract students from learning the subject at hand. Also they typically do not work over the long term. Once the rewards or punishments are removed, students may lose motivation (Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching, 2010).

Advantages of Intrinsic motivation - Intrinsic motivation can be long-lasting and self-sustaining. Efforts to develop this type of motivation also typically promote learning. Such efforts usually focus on the subject rather than on punishments or rewards (Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching, 2010).

Disadvantages of Intrinsic motivation - Efforts to foster intrinsic motivation can be slow to affect behavior and can require special and lengthy preparation (Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching, 2010).

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Although intrinsic and extrinsic motivation have drawbacks and advantages, students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to:

-pursue the task on their own initiative, without being prodded or cajoled.
-be cognitively engaged and keep focused on the task.
-undertake more challenging aspects of the task.
-strive for true understanding of the subject matter.
-show creativity in performance.
-persist in the face of failure.
-experience pleasure in the task.
-regularly evaluate their own progress.
-seek out additional opportunities to pursue the task.
-achieve at high levels (Ormrod, 2008).


Certainly, a classroom of students with intrinsic motivation is highly desirable, but students are not always exclusively motivated by either intrinsic or extrinsic factors. According to Ormrod (2008), "on many occasions, learners may be both extrinsically and intrinsically motivated. Even a single motive can have both extrinsic and intrinsic aspects; for example, students may strive for good grades not only for the external rewards that such good grades bring, but also for verification that they have mastered the subject matter" (p.452).

Theories on Motivation

Several authors incorporate the concept of motivation into theories that attempt to explain how learning occurs and why various factors are important. Three such theories are discussed below:


1) Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs





Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has often been represented in a hierarchial pyramid with five levels. The four lower levels (lower-order needs) are considered physiological needs, while the top level is represents growth needs. Lower levels need need to be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behavior (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2010). The levels are as follows:

•Self-actualization – morality, creativity, problem solving.
•Esteem – confidence, self-esteem, achievement, respect.
•Belongingness – love, friendship, intimacy, family.
•Safety – security of environment, employment, resources, health, property.
•Physiological – air, food, water, sex, sleep, other factors towards homeostasis (Learning Theories Knowledgebase, 2010).

Click here for more information on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.

2) Social Cognitive Theory by Millar and Dollard

The Social Cognitive Theory explains how people acquire and maintain behavioral patterns. According to Pajares (2002), Social Cognitive Theory purports that individuals can be motivated to proactively engage in their own development and make things happen with their own actions. Social Cognitive Theory asserts the following:

- Learners are motivated to increase their pleasure or satisfaction by achieving a goal.

-Learners can releive the burden of uneasiness by achieving a goal.

-Motivation of the learner is effected by reinforcement and punishment (Pajares, 2002).

3) ARCS Model of Motivational Design by John Keller



According to John Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivational Design (1987), there are four steps for promoting and sustaining motivation in the learning process: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction (ARCS).

1. Attention

Attention can be gained in two ways:

(1) Perceptual arousal uses surprising or uncertain events to gain interest; or

(2) Inquiry arousal stimulates curiosity by posing challenging questions or problems to be solved. Methods for capturing the learners’ attention include the use of:

- Active participation - role-play or other hands-on activities.
- Variability – a variety of methods should be used to present material.
- Humor -maintain interest by using a small amount of humor, but not too much to be distracting.
- Incongruity and Conflict – use of the devil’s advocate approach in which statements are posed that conflict with the past experiences of learners.
- Specific examples – Use visual stimuli or stories.
- Inquiry – Pose questions or problems for the learners to solve. Encourage the use of brainstorming (Keller, 1987).

2. Relevance

The use of concrete language and familiar examples establishes relevance and increases learners’ motivation. Six major strategies described by Keller are:

- Experience – Because students learn best by building upon preset knowledge and skills, instructors should explain how new material will complement existing skills.
- Present Worth – Learners need to answer the question, “What will the subject matter do for me today?”
- Future Usefulness – Learners need to answer the question, “What will the subject matter do for me tomorrow?”
- Needs Matching – Ensure that objectives match the needs of the learners.
- Modelings – Set a good example for students, invite guest speakers to class, and have the learners who finish work first serve as tutors to other students.
- Choice – Learners need to use different methods to pursue their work or choices in how they organize it (Keller, 1987).

3. Confidence

- Confidence helps students understand the likelihood for success. If students feel the objectives cannot be met or that the cost in time or effort is too high, their motivation will decrease.
- Objectives and prerequisites - students need to estimate the probability of success by assessing performance requirements and evaluation criteria.
-Allow for success that is meaningful.
-Grow the Learners – Small steps of growth should occur during the learning process.
-Provide feedback to students on a regular basis.
-Learner Control – Learners should feel some degree of control over their learning and assessments and should believe that success is a direct result of the amount of effort they have put forth (Keller, 1987).

4. Satisfaction

- Learning must be rewarding or satisfying in some way.
- The learner should feel as though the skill is useful or beneficial by being allowed to use the newly acquired knowledge in a real setting.
- Learners should not be over-rewarded for easy tasks (Keller, 1987).

Visit John Keller's website.

References

Clearinghouse on Educational Management, (2010). Student Motivation to Learn. Retrieved April 14, 2010 from: http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html

Harris, R. (1991). Some Ideas for Motivating Students. Retrieved April 7, 2010 from: http://www.virtualsalt.com/motivate.htm

Keller, J. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of motivational design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2-10.

Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2010, April). Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs at Learning-Theories.com. Retrieved April 20th, 2010 from http://www.learning-theories.com/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs.html

McRye, F. (1995). The Motivational Cycle. Retrieved April 7, 2010 from: http://eserver.org/courses/fall95/76-100g/papers/mcrye/default.html

Ormrod, J. (2008). Human Learning (5th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Pajares, F. (2002). Overview of Social Cognitive Theory and of Self-Efficacy. Retrieved April 19, 2010 from:http://www.emory.edu/EDUCATION/mfp/eff.html

Psychology Campus, (2008). Motivation. Retrieved April 6, 2010 from:
http://www.psychologycampus.com/educational-psychology/motivation.html

Raffini, J. (1993). Winners Without Losers: Structures and strategies for increasing student motivation to learn. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching, (2009). Motivating Students. Retrieved April 8, 2010 from:
http://www.vanderbilt.edu/cft/resources/teaching_resources/interactions/motivating.htm